A. According to Purpose
There are three main types of research projects: exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory.
Exploratory Research
Exploratory research is one of the types of research. It is commonly carried out in novel areas of study with the aim of understanding the scale or scope of a specific phenomenon, problem, or behavior. It also seeks to generate initial insights or hypotheses about the phenomenon or to assess the feasibility of conducting a more comprehensive study on the subject.
For example, if the people of a country are generally unhappy with the governmental policies during an economic downturn, exploratory research can focus on measuring the level of dissatisfaction among citizens, understanding how this dissatisfaction is expressed, such as through public protests, and identifying the likely causes of this dissatisfaction, such as ineffective government policies in addressing inflation, interest rates, unemployment, or higher taxes.
This research may not provide a highly accurate understanding of the target problem, but it can still be valuable in assessing the nature and scope of the problem. It can serve as a helpful preliminary step before conducting more comprehensive research.
This is one of the types of research which is conducted in situations where the subject matter is novel, lacking in information, and has not been previously investigated. Our objective is to develop more specific inquiries that we can focus on in future research. During the initial phase of the investigation, our goal is to gather sufficient information from the exploratory study in order to plan and conduct a more comprehensive and methodical study.
Exploratory research rarely yields definitive answers. It explores the core question: What is the true purpose of this social activity? Conducting this task can be quite challenging as it has few guidelines, where everything holds potential importance. The steps involved are not well-defined, and the direction of inquiry tends to change frequently.
Researchers who conduct exploratory research should possess qualities such as creativity, open-mindedness, and flexibility. They should approach their work with an investigative mindset and be willing to explore all available sources of information. They ask thought-provoking questions and embrace the power of unexpected or chance factors that can have significant impacts.
For example, the notion that the effects of immigration on younger children in a new country may be more damaging compared to older children. Surprisingly, it was discovered that children between the ages of six and eleven who immigrate are particularly at risk of experiencing disruption, even more so than older or younger children.
Key Features
- Gain a thorough understanding of the major facts, problems, and setting.
- Develop a broad understanding of the situation
- Create and refine questions for future research
- Generate fresh ideas, theories, or hypotheses
- Evaluate the feasibility of conducting research
- Design methods for measuring and locating future data
Qualitative data is commonly used in most exploratory research. Typically, qualitative research is more open to incorporating diverse evidence and uncovering new issues.
Descriptive Research
Descriptive research involves closely observing and thoroughly documenting a phenomenon of interest. These observations should adhere to the scientific method, which ensures replicability and precision. As a result, they are considered more reliable than casual observations made by untrained individuals.
The Bureau of Labor conducts descriptive research by tabulating demographic statistics. They use same instruments to estimate employment by sector and population growth by ethnicity across multiple surveys and censuses. When modifications are made to the measuring instruments, we provide estimates that include and exclude the changes. This allows readers to make a fair comparison of population or employment trends before and after the modifications. You may have a strong understanding of a social phenomenon and wish to describe it.
Descriptive research provides a comprehensive view of the complicated aspects of a situation, social setting, or relationship. A significant portion of the social research found in scholarly journals or used for making policy decisions is descriptive. Descriptive and exploratory research often overlap in practice. A descriptive research study begins by identifying a clear issue or question and aims to provide an accurate description of it. The study’s outcome provides a comprehensive understanding of the issue or a solution to the research question.
As an instance, one could examine the correlation between parents who consume excessive amounts of alcohol and cases of child abuse. According to the findings, a significant difference was observed in the rates of physical abuse between parents who engage in heavy drinking and those who either abstain from alcohol or consume it in moderation.
This one of the types of research that provides a comprehensive view of various individuals or social activities, looking into questions such as “how” and “who.” Who is involved? Understanding the root causes of certain behaviors, such as the abuse of children by heavy-drinking parents, is less of a concern than describing how things are.
A significant amount of social research focuses on describing various phenomena. Descriptive researchers employ a variety of data-gathering techniques, including surveys, field research, content analysis, and historical-comparative research.
Key Features
- Offer a comprehensive and precise picture
- Find new information that contradicts previous data
- Develop a system of categories or categorize various types
- Provide a clear outline of the steps or stages
- Describe a cause-and-effect process or mechanism
- Provide an overview of the background or context of a situation
Explanatory Research
Explanatory research aims to provide explanations for observed phenomena, problems, or behaviors. It aims to “connect the dots” in research by identifying the casual factors and outcomes of the target phenomenon. Examples involve gaining insight into the underlying causes of adolescent crime and aiming to develop effective strategies to address these societal issues.
Most of the Academic or doctoral research primarily falls under the explanation category, although there may be a need for some exploratory and/or descriptive research during the initial stages of the research. Understanding and making sense of observed events requires theoretical knowledge, interpretation skills, intuition, insights, and personal experience. The scientists who can do it excel in their fields and are highly valued.
When faced with a familiar problem and a clear description of it, it’s natural to question the reasons behind the current situation. The purpose of explanatory research is to address the “why” behind a certain phenomenon. This is one of the types of research that utilizes exploratory and descriptive research methods to further understand the causes behind certain occurrences. Going beyond simply providing a picture of the issue, an explanatory study looks into the underlying causes and reasons.
For instance, a descriptive study would focus on documenting the numbers of parents who engage in heavy drinking and abuse their children, while an explanatory study would aim to understand the underlying reasons behind this abusive behavior. We investigate the specific factors that link heavy drinking to child abuse. We use various approaches in explanatory research. In certain explanatory studies, a fresh explanation is formulated and subsequently backed up or denied with empirical evidence.
In other studies, we present multiple competing explanations and provide evidence for each, allowing for a thorough comparison to determine their relative strengths. Sometimes, we begin with a preexisting explanation based on social theory or previous research and then expand it to address a different issue, context, or population to assess its validity or identify any necessary adjustments or limitations.
Key Features
- Test the predictions or principles of a theory
- Expand and enhance the explanation of a theory
- Apply a theory to new issues or topics
- Evaluate or challenge an explanation or prediction
- Connect issues or topics to a general principle
- Evaluate and determine the most suitable explanation among several options
The primary goal of explanatory research is to provide explanations for the occurrence of events and to further develop, expand, or test theories.
B. According to the Enquiry
There are various other types of research which are discussed below:
Historical Research
This one of the types of research that involves carefully analyzing past events to uncover the truth. Historical research is typically conducted by an individual and may not involve the formulation of a hypothesis. This approach offers insights to address current challenges based on past events.
Ex-Post-Facto Research
This is one of the types of research is usually used to examine the diverse impact of two identical factors. There will be two variables: the dependent variable and the independent variable. This study will draw upon previous knowledge. In order to truly understand the potential effects of English and Urdu education in the future, it is crucial to thoroughly analyze past events and factual information.
Experimental Research
This process entails acquiring knowledge through the collection of new observations in controlled conditions. This one of the types of research that uncovers the relationship between variables and their effects. Carefully observing and accurately documenting data are essential tasks in this research. There are two types of experiments: laboratory and field experiments.
Field Research
This is one of the types of research in which the researcher carefully chooses the participants and observes their actions. This method sets the field experiment study with respect to the design of the research. Being an administrator and investigator is essential for a field researcher, as it allows for effective management of feasibility, cost, and time distribution in field research. Field research involves various methods, such as ethnography, participant observation, and in-depth interviewing.
C. According to Application
Pure / Basic research
This one of the types of research that develop scientific theories or basic principles. It is known as basic or fundamental research. It provides fundamental knowledge for the field of study.
Key Features
- It offers an initial foundation for further study.
- It involves uncovering new facts without proper verification.
- It gives a clear definition of a topic. It provides a clear direction for action.
- It provides different approaches to addressing social problems.
Applied Research
In applied research, the problem is identified and the results are expected to be applicable in improving the practice of finding solutions to problems that can lead to tangible benefits. According to Johada, “Applied research is not concerned only with the theoretical relationship among variables, but these are empirically tested in the field.
Key Features
- It examines and tests theories.
- It uncovers new facts.
- It focuses on the cause and effect of social events.
- It offers a prompt response to a question.
- The information transforms from broad to specific topics.
- It focuses on promoting social welfare.
Action Research
This study is focused on practical application and implementation on an immediate basis. This one of the types of research in which the researcher takes on the role of a participant observer and actively engages with the results and their practical implications. Action research is valuable for addressing local problems within a specific community. Immediate solutions are the focus of action research, addressing any problems that need to be resolved.
Key Features
- Utilizing action research can greatly contribute to informed decision-making.
- It expands one’s knowledge base.
- It is beneficial for putting research findings into action.
- It introduces an experimental perspective.
Evaluation Research
This one of the types of research that primarily focuses on assessing the effectiveness of programs that have been implemented to attain a specific goal. Evaluation is a process that involves assessing the final product and the impact of an activity in relation to the declared objectives of the program. Three categories of evaluation exist.
- Concurrent evaluation means a continuous process.
- Basic or periodic evaluation means stage-wise.
- Terminal evaluation means evaluation after the completion of the program.
Interdisciplinary Research
It involves examining the structure and function of a specific discipline or comparing it to another. It is also known as coordinated research.
Key Feature
- This is a collaborative project.
- It helps to study the phenomena as a whole.
- It presents an approach to compare the efficiency of various disciplines.
D. According to Method
Qualitative Research
In qualitative research, data is collected and subsequently analyzed. Information is easily available in society. Both inductive and deductive methods are utilized. Information is gathered through careful observation and then analyzed through interviews to reach a conclusion. For this type of research, there are no specific guidelines instead, the researcher must rely on their own powers of observation and analytical thinking when conducting qualitative research.
Quantitative Research
It is also known as a statistical method. The data is carefully measured, focusing only on units that can be easily quantified. It focuses solely on numerical data, rather than addressing the underlying causes of the issue.
Mixed-method Research
It is also one of the types of research that combines both i.e., qualitative and quantitative research. Few part of the study is qualitative while other one is quantitative.
Levels of Research
Types of research emphasize on the purpose, methodology and approaches of data collection, while levels of research focus on strength and quality of facts. Here we present five major levels of research:
Micro-Study
An understanding of social life at a small level/unitary level e.g. examining how the playing behavior of girls is different from that of boys.
Macro-Study
An understanding of social life at a large level even at the level of the whole society e.g. Karl Marx’s examination of the class struggle is an example of macro-study.
Longitudinal Study
A study design in which data is obtained from the same individual two or more times during a specific period of time (usually of considerable length such as several months or years). It is further sub-divided into:
Cohort Study
In a cohort study, a researcher investigates the evolution of specific subpopulations, or cohorts, over time.
Trend Study / Time series Research
Examines the changes within a given population over time. Compiling a cross-sectional picture of the trends being observed at different points in time over the past, present, and future and draw conclusions about the pattern of change.
Panel Study
Examines the same set of people each time. These are prospective in nature and are designed to collect information from the same respondents over a period of time.
Cross-Sectional Study
This process involves making observations of a sample or cross-section of a population or phenomenon at a single point in time. e.g. study of political activities exactly 15 days before a forthcoming general election in Pakistan.
Pilot Study
A small-scale study conducted prior to the conducting of the actual and complete study; its purpose is to reveal defects in the research plan.
