Discourse
At its core, discourse involves the exchange of ideas and information through spoken or written words, extending beyond a single statement. It is crucial to note that discourse involves more than a language, encompassing all types of linguistic and symbolic elements. Discourse extends its scope to include the broader implications conveyed by language within its context, taking into account the social, cultural, political, and historical background of the discussion.
Discourse Analysis
Discourse analysis (DA) encompasses a wide range of qualitative methods that look into the structure and manifestation of language within its social and cultural framework. It examines the linguistic content and language used in a given text to convey meaning in various social settings. Discourse analysis utilizes the language found in a corpus or body of data to extract meaning. While some forms of discourse analysis explore deeper aspects of language, such as its sounds or grammar, other forms concentrate on how language is employed to accomplish its objectives. Discourse analysis offers a broad framework for social research focused on addressing problems. In simple terms, discourse analysis is utilized to conduct research on the utilization of language in various social problems, which are the issues in society that have a negative impact on individuals. For instance, discourse analysis can be employed to evaluate how language is utilized to convey different perspectives on financial inequality. It would examine how the issue should or should not be tackled or resolved and whether participants perceive this alleged inequality as such.
Discourse Analysis – Key Elements
- Discourse analysis is a qualitative research method that includes a thorough examination of written, spoken, non-verbal, and visual language within its context.
- We examine discourse to gain insights into how language is utilized in everyday situations and its role in establishing and upholding societal expectations and shared understanding.
- When analyzing discourse, it is important to take into account various factors such as vocabulary, grammar, genre, tone, imagery, pragmatics, and the relationship of the discourse to society.
- We can apply discourse analysis to a wide range of texts, such as novels, adverts, speeches, lyrics, newspapers, and more.
- There are two primary types of discourse analysis: language-in-use analysis and socio-political analysis. One of the most prevalent forms of socio-political analysis is critical discourse analysis.
Features of Discourse Analysis
Discourse analysis encompasses some fundamental concepts:
Context
Discourse analysts study how language meaning is influenced by its context during communication. Take into consideration that the concept of “home” can vary depending on the person you’re talking to – a family member, a friend, or even a stranger.
Power
Discourse analysts also investigate how power dynamics are manifested in the use of language. For instance, the manner in which a boss communicates with an employee is likely to be distinct from the way in which the employee communicates with the boss.
Identity
Discourse can also serve as a means to create and uphold various identities. For instance, the manner in which a politician communicates during a campaign speech often contrasts with their communication style when addressing their voters in a private meeting.
Stages for Analyzing Discourse
Fairclough’s (1995) model suggests discourse be investigated in three stages:
- Description – examination of the text itself such as grammar, lexicon, syntax, literary devices (e.g. rhetorical questions), phonological features, and images.
- Interpretation – The process of generating and disseminating discourse, as well as its subsequent consumption by the reader/listener, involves the identification of the author and the audience.
- Explanation – Examining the conversation as a social activity and situating it within the broader framework of society.
Purpose of Discourse Analysis
Here are some common objectives of discourse analysis:
- The objective is to examine the role of language in the formation and preservation of social identities.
- The aim is to investigate how language contributes to the establishment and perpetuation of power dynamics.
- To analyze the influence of social and cultural values on the formation and expression of language.
- The objective is to examine how language is employed to create and uphold social perceptions of reality.
- The objective is to recognize and comprehend the various methods by which language can be employed to convince, educate, or amuse.
- The objective is to examine the correlation between language and many social phenomena, including education, employment, and the media.
Types of Discourse Analysis
Discourse analysis is a comprehensive and interdisciplinary field that encompasses diverse qualitative methodologies for examining the utilization of language. Several prevalent methodologies for discourse analysis include:
Narrative Analysis
Narrative analysis is the examination of the manner in which stories are conveyed and how they influence our comprehension of the world. They may also have an interest in the manner in which stories are narrated in various social settings and how they are utilized to establish and uphold social identities and power dynamics. For instance, one may examine the narrative of Christopher Columbus across many cultures and analyze its impact on individuals’ perceptions of heroism.
Conversation Analysis (CA)
Conversation analysis examines the patterns and structures of ordinary conversations. Researchers in conversation analysis (CA) are specifically focused on examining complicated aspects of communication, including the dynamics of turn-taking (the alternation between speaking and listening), the role of gaze (eye contact), and the significance of body language. They may also be interested in the ways in which conversation is utilized to accomplish various social objectives, such as establishing relationships, management, and sharing information. As a conversation analyst, you can examine how individuals employ turn-taking and gaze to negotiate their social standing during a job interview.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)
Critical discourse analysis examines the correlation between language and authority. CDA scholars study the ways in which language is utilized to establish and uphold social disparities. They may also be interested in exploring how language may be utilized to address and resist societal oppression. Analyze the strategies employed by politicians in a campaign speech to create and uphold societal differences. Consider the concept of “us vs them” or “privileged vs underprivileged.”
Rhetorical Analysis
Rhetorical analysis explores the utilization of language for the purposes of persuasion, information dissemination, and entertainment. It examines the intention of the speaker or writer, the intended audience, and the tactics employed to accomplish their objective. They might also have an interest in employing rhetorical devices, such as metaphors, similes, and rhetorical questions. A rhetorical analyst may examine the utilization of metaphors in speeches to elicit emotional responses from an audience.
Ethnography of Communication
The ethnography of communication is a study methodology that integrates the disciplines of ethnography with discourse analysis. Ethnographers of communication analyze the utilization of language within diverse cultural and social settings. They might have an interest in the ways in which language is utilized to build and sustain relationships, negotiate societal contexts, and express social identities. An ethnographer of communication could investigate the utilization of language by individuals to establish connections and negotiate social significance within a professional setting.
Pragmatics
Pragmatics is the examination of how language is employed within a given situation. Pragmatists study the ways in which language is employed to communicate meaning that goes beyond the explicit definitions of the terms themselves. They might have an interest in the influence of characteristics such as tone, body language, and shared knowledge on communication. An individual with a pragmatic approach may analyze tone and nonverbal cues such as eye-rolling to express sarcasm or politeness.
Variation Analysis
Variation analysis examines the ways in which language differs among various social groups and environments. The study focuses on the elements that influence linguistic variance, including age, geographical location, social status, and gender. They might also have an interest in the consequences of language variety for social identity and power dynamics. A variation analyst may examine the regional variations in the pronunciation of the term “science” within different areas of Pakistan.
Methods of Data Collection
The data collection methods utilized in this study encompassed document analysis, interviews, group discussions, case studies, and ethnography. The data were derived from several forms of verbal and textual communication.
Verbal Examples
- Interviews – The most prevalent approach to eliciting conversation is generally referred to as “semi-structured” or “in-depth” interviews.
- Longitudinal case studies – It is possible to do longitudinal case studies involving primary school principals, when frequent interviews are conducted.
- Ethnographic research e.g. interview in a social context to understand workplace practice or learning.
- Discussion in a documentary program, e.g. one on a model of sustainability for Australia.
- Netnography – an ethnographic research method can be used to observe behavior in an online setting, or a chat on health care (Misra et al., 2008).
- Focus groups e.g. institutionalization in community organizations (O’Shea, 2007).
Textual Examples
- Business documents, e.g. corporate annual reports, brochures, diversity documents.
- The media, for example, Jensen (2008) analyses the Asia Bibi blasphemy case by reference to dawn newspaper articles on the subject
- Scholarly journal articles, e.g. Haider and Bawden (2007) look at the concept of “information poverty” in 35 English language articles.
- Textbooks, Official documents, etc., e.g. analyze Pakistan Studies textbooks in political context.
- Poetry, studying Iqbal’s poetry to understand spirituality.
- Websites – scrutinize the “About us” sections of 20 well-known business websites.
Approaches of Discourse Analysis
Language-In-Use Approach (How It’s Used)
You select language-in-use methodologies to concentrate on the linguistic aspects of language utilization, including grammar, syntax, phonology, and structure. Their objective is to uncover and study the utilization and manipulation of these complex language variations in social circumstances.
Lee and Bhuyan (2013) demonstrate the process of analyzing conversational indicators through the coding of conversation transcripts, as conducted by conversation analysts. Their objective is to categorize conversational markers based on their specific functions, such as turn-taking, overlap, exhalation, and conflict. They seek to understand how this language is employed to negotiate meaning and build knowledge.
Socio-political Approach
Socio-political methods of discourse analysis examine the impact of language in social contexts and the reciprocal relationship between language and society rather than solely focusing on linguistic technicalities. Critical Discourse Analysis is a prominent socio-political technique that examines power dynamics, such as the relationship between a teacher and a student, and how discourse is shaped by societal and cultural influences. Critical Discourse Analysis originates from Michel Foucault’s initial research on power, which centers on power systems by examining normalized power. Normalized power is deeply rooted and relatively difficult. It is the essence of our presence in society, according to the established standards of a particular social setting, and enabling us to fulfill our obligations. In contrast, repressive power is a more evident sort of power that is deliberately exerted.
For instance, let’s suppose a scenario in which a teacher issues a warning of punishment to a student as a consequence of their continued disruption of the class through speaking. This is an instance of repressive power, meaning it was actively exercised. Conversely, normalized power is the factor that discourages us from speaking in class. The subtle cues we receive from our surroundings provide us with guidance on how to conduct ourselves. This type of influence is embedded in our lives, and we are often unaware of how it shapes our beliefs, desires, and choices.
According to Critical Discourse Analysis, language holds significant power. To comprehend the dynamics and structures of power in society, it is essential to examine language. Studying language usage enables us to get insight into the social environment, particularly the dynamics of power.
Here is a concise overview of how the specific methods correspond to these bigger classifications: Language-in-use approaches include; narrative analysis, conversation analysis, pragmatics whereas, socio-political approaches include; critical discourse analysis (CDA), ethnography of communication, and rhetorical analysis.
Materials for Discourse Analysis
Discourse analysis (DA) can be applied to any form of written or spoken language, including non-verbal elements of communication such as tones and gestures. Here are a few examples:
- Written Texts -Books, magazines, newspapers, brochures, periodicals, advertisements, government documents, and business, websites, social media posts, forums, and comments.
- Spoken Texts -Interviews, lectures, conversations, sermons, courtroom testimony and political speeches.
Advantages of Discourse Analysis
Enhanced Comprehension
Discourse analysis enables a more profound comprehension of texts and conversations by looking behind their apparent layers. It uncovers the latent significances and frameworks that may not be readily evident, offering a more comprehensive understanding of the subject matter.
Contextual Insight
By examining language in its specific context, one can obtain a deeper understanding of how social, cultural, and historical elements impact communication. This feature renders it exceptionally valuable for comprehending intricate or delicate matters.
Analyzing Power Dynamics
Discourse analysis is an effective method for revealing power disparities and hierarchies in communication. It has the ability to emphasize which voices are given attention and which are disregarded, revealing social inequities.
Research Versatility
It is highly flexible and can be effectively utilized across a diverse array of materials. With its adaptability, communication can be explored across a wide range of fields, including literature, politics, everyday conversations, and social media.
Disadvantages of Discourse Analysis
Complexity
Discourse analysis can be sophisticated, requiring a profound comprehension of linguistic and social theories. Some researchers may be discouraged from using it due to its intricacy.
Subjectivity
The process of interpreting a text is crucial, and various analysts may reach different conclusions when analyzing the same text. Qualitative analysis inherently involves subjectivity, so it is important to ensure the validity of your findings. This can be achieved by methods such as peer debriefing, reflexivity, or by doing a mixed-method study.
Time-Consuming
Conducting a thorough examination of discourse can be a lengthy process, particularly for individuals who are new to the task. The task requires careful analysis of written documents and can be more challenging for longer or more comprehensive information.
Process of Conducting Discourse Analysis
As every study is different, it’s challenging to outline exactly what steps need to be taken to complete your research. However, the following steps can be used as a guideline if you choose to adopt discourse analysis for your research.
Step 1 – Decide Discourse Analysis Approach
The first stage is choosing an approach. Examples include language in use and socio-political approaches like critical discourse analysis. This requires considering your study goals, objectives, and questions. Naturally, these components must be defined. Discourse analysis emphasizes context, thus your research questions must focus on language in context. Your approach must match your study’s goal. Examine what you are exploring and what you want to achieve, then examine discourse analysis options.
Step 2 – Design Data Collection Method
After choosing a technique, you can consider data collection. Discourse analysis uses previously discussed “talk” and “text” as data. Your study questions and goals will determine your data collection. Discourse analysis is time-consuming, so don’t waste it on irrelevant material. Practicality should be considered when choosing collection methods. What info is available in reality? How many participants and how much time do you have to collect and analyze data? If your approaches are unworkable given your limits, you’ll have issues. After choosing a data gathering method, you can start data collection.
Step 3 – Investigate the Context
Understanding context and meaning is crucial to discourse analysis. Therefore, you must carefully and systematically examine your discourse’s context. Make sure you can answer most of these questions:
- What is the discourse?
- Why does discourse exist? What is the discourse’s goal?
- When did the discussion occur?
- Where did it occur?
- Who engaged in the discussion? Who made and ate it?
- What does the discourse tell about society holistically?
- How is meaning delivered in conversation context?
Include all conversational background in your analysis to eliminate confounding elements. Does the discourse exist for social, political, or historical reasons? What else could cause the discourse? Take as many things into account as feasible because they can affect discourse. After investigating the context of your data, you’ll know what you’re dealing with and your content better. Start your analysis.
Step 4 – Analyze your Data
Discourse analysis requires themes and patterns. First, look at codes, which are specific topics in the data. Learn more about qualitative data coding here. Next, identify themes from these codes. Your data may reveal discourse themes, which are recurring words or sentences. For instance, “safety” and “convenience” may be themes in women’s views of a place. Data saturation is crucial in discourse analysis. It refers to researching and analyzing your data to the point where you find no fresh information. To achieve this, you must repeatedly analyze your data collection to gain deeper knowledge. This is time-consuming and sometimes boring, but necessary. After saturation, you should have an almost complete analysis and be ready for final inspection.
Step 5 – Review your Work
You’re almost there. Now it’s time to review your work. After analysis, compile your solutions to your research questions in this final phase. Answer your research questions properly and support your answers with data. Thesis and dissertation appendices are used for discourse analysis investigations. This allows reviewers or markers to easily go between your analysis (and findings) and your corpus (your evidence) to evaluate your work. Check your answers against your research goals and objectives when answering your questions. This will zoom out and provide a larger picture. To gain a more complete understanding of the topic, you may decide to broaden the research question set based on your analysis.
